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The Role of Genetics in the Academic Success of College Students

The relationship between genetics and personal traits such as skin color, height, eye color, and health risks are well understood. However, the relationship between genetics and academic success is less clear. It has been the subject of many new research studies. 

All research, in general, agrees that many factors, including environmental influences, socioeconomic background, personal motivation, and genetic predispositions, influence academic success. This dichotomy is referred to as "nature" and "nurture".  Recent genomic studies have, however, uncovered "genetic nurture" effects, whereby parental genotypes influence offspring outcomes via environmental pathways rather than genetic transmission. A comprehensive study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics reviewed 12 studies comprising 38,654 distinct parent(s)-offspring pairs or trios from 8 cohorts. The study quantified these effects and found that the direct genetic effects on offspring's educational outcomes were twice as high as genetic nurture effects. 

A range of cognitive and noncognitive traits drives academic achievement. One of the primary ways genetics influences academic success is through cognitive ability. Intelligence, often measured through IQ tests, has been shown to have a strong genetic component. A research paper published in the Jornal Nature in 2018 by Plomin & von Stumm estimates that approximately 50-80% of individual differences in intelligence are hereditary. Twin and adoption studies reinforce this idea, showing that identical twins raised apart often exhibit similar cognitive abilities. In contrast, adopted children resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive ones in terms of intelligence.

Beyond general intelligence, polygenic scores—measures of genetic influence based on multiple genetic variants—have shown that genetics also affect specific cognitive functions crucial to academic success, such as memory, attention span, and problem-solving skills. According to a 2018 research paper by Lee et al., students with higher polygenic scores tend to perform better in school.

While genetics provides a strong foundation for academic abilities, these abilities can only be realized under conducive environmental factors. A 2019 study by the University of York found that socioeconomic status (SES) is more beneficial than genes for academic success. In this study, 47% of children with high polygenic scores but a poorer background made it to university, compared with 62% of children with a low score but more affluent parents. Children with high polygenic scores for education who were also from wealthy and well-educated family backgrounds had the most significant advantage, with 77% going to university.

Several studies on the impact of low SES-related factors such as stress, poor nutrition, and difficult early childhood experiences indicate that they can alter gene expression and affect cognitive development and learning ability. For instance, prolonged stress can negatively impact brain function, reducing working memory and attention and hindering academic performance despite a student's genetic predisposition for intelligence. 

These genetic research discoveries also raise serious ethical consideration regarding how this information should be used. While genetic insights can help identify students who may need additional educational support, there is a risk of misuse, such as genetic determinism—the belief that genetics alone determine success—or discrimination based on genetic predispositions. Additionally, concerns about privacy and consent must be addressed when using genetic data in educational settings. Other concerns include the fact that almost all related studies have been conducted on populations from the US and Europe. Global studies, including broader populations in Asia and Africa, are lacking.  

In summary, environmental factors and children's inherited DNA differences are potent predictors of educational achievement.  Acknowledging this complexity enables educators, policymakers, and students to take a well-rounded approach that fosters individual growth while promoting equal access to educational opportunities.

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